Historical Background

Modern Turkey is the most recent in a series of important states and empires that have inhabited the Anatolian peninsula since the beginning of history. The oldest known site of human urban habitation is located in central Turkey at Çatalhöyük (6500 BC). The great Hittite Empire (1750–1200 BC), which dominated much of the Middle East, was centered east of Ankara. Ancient Troy, the scene of much of Homer’s Iliad, was located near the Dardanelles. Alexander the Great captured Anatolia in the fourth century BC, and the Romans followed three centuries later, establishing important cities, such as Ephesus (Efes) and Antioch (Antakya), as major provincial capitals.

In AD 330, Emperor Constantine of Rome founded the city of Constantinople (now İstanbul), which later became the center of the Byzantine Empire. This powerful state dominated eastern Europe for a thousand years. The Muslim Seljuk Turks entered Asia Minor in the 11th century and began the long process of Islamization and Turkization. In 1453, the successors of the Seljuks, the Ottoman Turks, captured Constantinople and went on to create a vast empire, stretching beyond the bounds of the Byzantine Empire into the Balkans, the Middle East, and North Africa. The Ottoman Empire survived until World War I when it allied itself with the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria). With the defeat of the Central Powers, the empire was dismembered.

In 1923, out of the ruins of the Ottoman Empire, General Mustafa Kemal (known as Atatürk) fashioned the Republic of Turkey. Under Atatürk, the nation was reformed from an empire to a secular state with an Islamic majority. The country was removed from the dominion of Muslim kings called sultans and Muslim religious leaders called caliphs and was proclaimed a republic. The nation also adopted a Western civil law code, the Gregorian calendar, the Latin alphabet, and modern Western dress. Although most of Turkey is in Asia, it has always had important European ties. In 1952, Turkey joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and provided land for a U.S. military base.

Over the next three decades, the country went through various cycles of political turmoil. Economic and political upheaval in the 1970s led the military to seize control in 1980. The military restored stability, called for elections in 1983, and withdrew from power. The military commander responsible for these actions, Kenan Evran, was elected president. His prime minister, Turgut Özal, became the dominant political figure in the 1980s. In 1989, Özal was elected president.

Elections in 1991 brought Özal’s rival, Süleyman Demirel, to power as prime minister. Demirel had been prime minister before and was twice (1971, 1980) ousted in coups. When Özal died suddenly in 1993, Demirel was elected by parliament as the new president. Tansu Çiller took Demirel’s vacated position, becoming Turkey’s first female prime minister. Her government faced economic challenges and the insurgency of the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK). Tens of thousands were killed in Turkey’s struggle with the guerrilla separatist PKK, a group that wants a Kurdish homeland. The current government must deal with the Kurds’ continuing desire for autonomy and make serious improvements on several other fronts before it can reach its goal of joining the EU.

General Attitudes
Turkey is often described as a bridge between East and West. Because they have interacted with Europe and Asia for centuries, Turks have incorporated features from both areas into their lifestyle and thinking. At the same time, they are patriotic and have developed a unique society. The people are proud of the achievements of their modern state as well as the accomplishments of their ancestors, who ruled great empires. Turks consider their society to be progressive, Europe-leaning, and strongly influential in the region. They often feel misunderstood by European and other Western nations; they wish their country to be seen as modern, ethnically diverse, tolerant, and democratic.

Individually, Turks prize a good sense of humor; it is considered a sign of intelligence. Group orientation is valued over personal assertiveness or aggression, and honesty and cleverness are admired qualities. People also value a good education, secure employment, wealth, social status, and an honorable heritage. Bravery and loyalty are also prized personal traits.

Greetings
When greeting friends or strangers, one shakes hands and says Nasılsınız? (How are you?) or Merhaba (Hello). A typical response to Nasılsınız is İyiyim, teşekkur ederim (Fine, thank you). Greetings among friends are followed by polite inquiries about one’s health, family, and work. Among close friends of the same (or sometimes the opposite) gender, Turks clasp hands and kiss on both cheeks when greeting. The hands of an older person may be kissed and touched to the greeter’s forehead to show respect. Young people often greet each other with Selam (Salute). Someone entering a room, office, or teahouse might say Günaydin (Good morning) or İyi günler (Have a nice day). When parting, people customarily wish each other blessings from Allah (Allahaısmarladık) and respond agreeably (Güle güle).

Upon joining a small group, one greets each person individually. When addressing others formally, one uses professional titles. Otherwise, the title Hanım is used for women and Bey for men among peers or with younger persons. These follow the given name: Leyla Hanım or Ismail Bey. In informal situations, one addresses older people with Abla for women (Fatma Abla) or Abi for men (Ahmet Abi). These terms mean “big sister” and “big brother” respectively. When greeting someone much older, one uses Teyze (aunt) and Amca (uncle) after the first name. Urban people generally do not greet strangers they pass on the street; rural people are more likely to greet strangers.

Gestures
Turkish people generally use their hands a great deal during conversation, forming gestures that add meaning and emphasis. Social courtesies are valued in Turkey. One does not put feet on a desk or table, point the sole of the foot toward another person, smoke without asking permission, or cross the legs while in the presence of an older or superior person. In rural areas it is not proper for adults to eat on the street. It is common for members of the same sex to walk arm-in-arm or to kiss on the cheeks. Public displays of affection between men and women are not acceptable. “No” can be expressed by either shaking the head or lifting it upward quickly.

Visiting
Turks enjoy visiting one another in their homes, and hospitality is an integral part of the culture. Friends, relatives, and neighbors visit often. In large cities, people call ahead, but this is not practical in smaller villages, where unexpected visits occur more frequently. Guests always are invited in and offered refreshments. This usually involves something to drink (such as tea, coffee, soda) and may also include something to eat (such as crackers or cookies). It is impolite to decline these refreshments.

Many Turks remove their shoes when entering a home and replace them with slippers. Guests are expected to do the same at homes where this custom is followed. Visitors are expected to bring a pleasant presence to the home; bad news or accounts of problems are saved for other occasions. It is impolite to ask a host personal questions. First-time visitors to a home may bring a small gift, such as candy, fruit, or flowers; gifts are opened after the visitor leaves. Turks strive to make their guests feel comfortable. For example, even if the hosts do not think smoking is appropriate, they may allow visitors to smoke in their homes.

Eating
Breakfast usually is eaten around 7 a.m., or earlier in rural areas. Lunch is at midday and dinner is around 7 p.m. Dinner is the main meal, and the family generally expects to sit down together for this meal.

Eating habits vary with the region and the food being eaten. Turks generally observe the continental style of eating—the fork stays in the left hand and the knife remains in the right. Some foods are eaten with the hands. In rural areas, people may sit on the floor around a low table. To begin or end a meal, one might say Afiyet Olsun (May what you eat bring you well-being). One may compliment the cook on the meal by saying Elinize sağlik (roughly, “Bless your hand”). Meals can be lavish, and Turks are quite proud of their rich cuisine. Restaurant specialties range from fast food to international cuisine; Turkish kebab restaurants are especially common. Some restaurants include a service charge in the bill (about 10 percent), in which case a 5 percent tip is customary. If no service charge is included, a 15 percent tip should be given.

Family
The primary social unit in Turkey is the family. In rural areas, traditional patriarchal values prevail. An individual is loyal to and dependent upon the family. The Turkish household often consists of an extended family: a mother and father, any unmarried children, and in some cases, married sons with their families. The married sons remain until they are financially independent. In urban areas, nuclear families are standard, and traditional authority structures are less pronounced. It is uncommon for a person to live alone, mostly for economic reasons.

Polygamy, as permitted by Islamic law, was abolished in 1930. Women gained the right to vote in 1927 and the right to divorce in 1934, when civil marriage contracts were introduced. However, the divorce rate remains very low. Since 2002, women have had legal equality with men, but much work remains before true equality is achieved. There are many urban women who work outside the home. About a third of the labor force is female.

Personal Appearance
Most Turks wear Western-style clothing. European fashions are especially popular among young people. Muslim women, especially in rural areas, may wear a scarf to cover their hair. However, secular laws prohibit such religious clothing in state-run institutions, government offices, and public schools. Some traditional costumes are still worn in rural areas or for special occasions. The design of a costume’s headdress and the type of material used indicate a person’s social status.